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The University of Cambridge study of 615 state schools in England found that while socio-economic background does not have a significant impact on students’ desire to study languages, poorer students are disproportionately concentrated in schools that give languages lower priority. This significantly reduces their chances of studying a language after the age of 14.

The research identified a seven percentage point gap between the proportion of disadvantaged students at schools where languages were optional at GCSE, and at those where they were considered ‘core’. Uptake at these schools diverged dramatically, with the proportion of students studying a GCSE language varying by more than 50 percentage points.

These findings suggest that disadvantaged students have been worst affected by the national decline in language study since 2004, when GCSE languages ceased to be compulsory. In the academic year 2023/4, just 45.7% of eligible students in England took a language GCSE. By contrast, 97.9% of upper secondary students in the EU study at least one foreign language.

The study also shows that if schools offer a wider choice of languages, their GCSE language scores tend to be better overall. For every additional language offered at GCSE, schools’ average scores for GCSE languages rose by almost a quarter of a grade.

The research, published in The Language Learning Journal, was undertaken by Dr Karen Forbes, Associate Professor in Second Language Education at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.

Forbes said it raised concerns about widening inequalities in language learning. “It seems obvious, but surely all children should have the same opportunity to learn a language,” she said. “In practice, for less wealthy students these subjects are often de-emphasised. If this is not addressed, the national decline in language learning will continue and probably accelerate.”

Language learning in England is compulsory from ages seven to 14, with most pupils studying French, Spanish or German. Thereafter, schools decide whether to treat languages as ‘core’ or optional. In addition, some offer languages through a specific pathway tied to the English Baccalaureate (EBacc): a performance measure based on the number of pupils taking GCSEs in what the Government considers important subjects, which includes languages.

The Cambridge study explored how schools’ policies on languages – treating them as ‘core’, attaching them to an EBacc pathway, or leaving them fully optional – affects uptake at GCSE and students’ attainment.

It also considered other factors that might influence uptake and grades, including students’ prior attainment (measured using test scores at Key Stage 2), the number of “disadvantaged” students, and the number of students who use English as an additional language (EAL), meaning they speak a different language at home.

Out of the 615 schools, 19.2% treated languages as ‘core’, 29.6% offered an EBacc pathway, and 51.2% positioned languages as completely optional. The vast majority of GCSE students took French, Spanish, or German; but some studied Chinese, Italian, Urdu, Hebrew, Arabic, Japanese or Bengali.

Disadvantaged students were more likely to attend schools where languages were optional, accounting for almost 29% of all students, compared with just 21.3% in schools where languages were core. The proportion in EBacc pathway schools was 25.65%: almost identical to the national average.

Critically, the effect of school language policies on uptake were stark. In schools where languages were core, 82.6% of students studied a language to GCSE. The figure sank to 52.7% in EBacc pathway schools and just 31.9% in schools where languages are optional. As the study shows, these are the schools that disproportionately serve less affluent communities.

Even after accounting for prior attainment and EAL pupils, school policy remained the strongest predictor of students’ likelihood of studying a language to GCSE. In contrast, disadvantage had no significant effect. In other words, given the chance, poorer students are just as likely to continue language study past age 14 as their peers.

The research also considered the effects that increasing language uptake has on results. On average, each percentage increase in uptake was linked to a 0.019 point drop, or about one-fiftieth of a grade, in the school’s average GCSE grade across all language subjects.

This effect was more than outweighed by the benefits of offering a wider choice of languages, however. For each additional GCSE language on the timetable, the average grade rose by 0.234 points – almost a quarter of a grade.

Forbes said that how schools position languages in the curriculum sends important signals to students. “When schools frame languages as useful and important the students pick up on this,” she said. “Offering a wider range of languages also gives them a choice, and they are more likely to be motivated if they are studying a language they have actively chosen.”

While the EBacc has not reversed the national decline in language learning, the findings provide some tentative evidence that it has a positive effect in some schools, bearing in mind the 20 percentage point difference between uptake in EBacc pathway schools and schools where languages are purely optional.

“Personally, I would love to see languages reestablished as core subjects at GCSE across all schools – this would signal its importance and create more equitable opportunities for students,” Forbes said. “In the absence of that, something is better than nothing, and national-level accountability measures for languages like the EBacc do seem to influence both schools and students. Broadening choice – rather than narrowing it – is key to reducing inequalities between students, and to raising both participation and attainment.”

Students from less wealthy backgrounds are more likely to attend schools where learning a language to GCSE is treated as optional – and not necessarily strongly encouraged – new research shows.

Andrew Fox/GettyUK schoolgirls in a GCSE language lessom

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Yes

In Rewilding Education, Professor Hilary Cremin argues that modern schooling is defined by an obsession with standardisation and outdated thinking, while it fails to nurture creativity, critical thought, or the physical and mental health of students and teachers.

Cremin, who is Head of the Faculty of Education at the University of Cambridge, draws on decades of experience as a teacher, academic and consultant – as well as the work of other scholars – to put forward a programme for “long-term, radical change”, including a stronger focus on students’ social and emotional development alongside academic achievement.

The book’s numerous proposals include more lessons outdoors, and more projects that connect students to their communities beyond the school gates. Steps such as these, she argues, would help prepare young people to live responsibly – and well – in a rapidly changing world.

Cremin acknowledges that these ideas may be disparaged by traditionalists and policy-makers – as, indeed, they have been before. In 2013, she was one of 100 academic critics of Michael Gove’s educational reforms whom the then Education Secretary branded “enemies of promise”.

More than a decade later, she argues, there is still no evidence that those reforms, like many before and since, have narrowed the attainment gap between wealthy and poorer students as promised. Research shows that the gap widens throughout school, reaching the equivalent of more than 19 months of learning by the end of secondary education.

“Despite decades of reform, I think the school system as we presently configure it may be beyond redemption,” Cremin said. “This isn’t an attack on the idea of education, or on the thousands of brilliant teachers who give the job their all. But government after government has tinkered with education when the basic model is obsolete.”

“If we keep preparing children for the second half of the 21st century using a system designed in the 19th, it could do catastrophic harm. We need to rethink what it means to educate, and what we are educating for.”

Rewilding Education challenges the ‘myth of social mobility’, arguing that education functions more as a sorting mechanism than a levelling force. High-performing school still admit disproportionately few disadvantaged young people, and poverty remains the strongest available predictor of student outcomes.

The chimerical belief persists that good grades will secure students a better future. “None of the ideas driving schools policy really stands up to scrutiny,” Cremin writes, “yet this hardly seems to matter”.

Cremin contends that schools often resemble outdated, factory-style production lines: rigid, standardised and with sometimes militaristic discipline. This, she suggests, suppresses curiosity, discourages critical thinking and disempowers teachers.

Her critique of the effects on physical and mental health is particularly urgent. Cremin argues that schools are making students and teachers ill. She presents evidence linking the loss of physical education and the sale of school playing fields to rising childhood obesity, and notes that even basic needs – such as access to adequate toilet facilities – often go unmet.

High-stakes testing, she adds, is fuelling poor mental health, while zero-tolerance behaviour policies have driven a 60% rise in permanent exclusions since 2015, with disadvantaged students four times more likely to be excluded. Students and teachers, she suggests, sometimes turn to medication to cope with an “ailing system”.

This bleak reality, she argues, demands more than incremental reform. The book calls for a new educational model for a new kind of future – one shaped by the climate crisis, downward mobility, Generative AI and post-truth politics. “We are educating for jobs and lifestyles that will soon cease to exist,” Cremin writes, “while failing to educate for those that don’t yet exist.”

This leads Cremin to call for education to be ‘rewilded’ – a metaphor drawn from ecological restoration. In schools, it implies letting go of rigid, one-size-fits-all structures, and allowing less predictable and more holistic forms of learning to emerge.

Nature plays a central role in her vision. Drawing on thinkers like Rabindranath Tagore, Cremin argues that schools should treat the natural world as a “co-educator”. She encourages outdoor and experience-based learning and suggests that even small changes – like planting trees, creating school gardens or nature-inspired arts activities – could help foster greater respect for the environment.

Rewilding Education also urges a rebalancing towards project-based learning, the arts and civic engagement. Students, Cremin argues, must learn not only to reproduce knowledge, but to act with wisdom and care, and to think critically about complex problems. This requires education for “body, mind, heart and soul”.

She proposes, for example, giving students time to walk and reflect when grappling with difficult questions, and highlights research linking later start times for adolescents – who have different sleep patterns – to better performance and wellbeing. She also champions mindfulness and ‘metacognitive’ approaches, that help children reflect on how they are thinking while they are learning.

In a chapter Cremin anticipates critics will deliberately misread, she calls for greater trust and deeper relationships between teachers and students. Risk aversion in schools, she argues, has counter-intuitively made it harder for teachers to care and support pupils, in favour of rule enforcement and teaching facts.

The book draws on examples from the UK, India, Germany and the US to show how ‘rewilding’ is not just possible, but already happening, in some schools that emphasise education for togetherness, harmony and wellbeing. “Something fundamental needs to change,” Cremin added. “We are crying out for systemic transformation: a completely new vision of what education involves, however challenging that may be.”

A new book warns that the school system may be “broken beyond repair”, claiming that it is deepening inequality and making children ill.

We are crying out for systemic transformation: a completely new vision of what education involves, however challenging that may beHilary CreminCaia images/GettyGirl takes exam in a London secondary school.

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Yes

The Academy is completing the national rollout of its ECRN, a researcher-led network for UK-based researchers in Humanities and Social Sciences, as a new cluster is launched to serve the East of England.

At Cambridge, the ECRN will be based at CRASSH (the Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities) and also supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Facilitation Team and the Postdoc Academy.

“Early career researchers are the architects of some of the most innovative and dynamic projects, events, and networks we host at CRASSH, and we are delighted to be able to extend our work with them in this way,” said Professor Joanna Page, Director of CRASSH and academic lead for the East of England Cluster.

“The British Academy ECRN will provide a wonderful opportunity for researchers across the region to connect with each other and benefit from a rich programme of research and professional development.”

ECRN members benefit from mentoring schemes, training, networking events, grant-writing retreats, academic book-publishing conferences, travel grants to attend network events and conferences, and seed-funding opportunities.

“The University of Cambridge has a longstanding commitment to supporting early career researchers, and we are honoured to play a part in this excellent initiative,” said Professor John Aston, Pro-Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of Cambridge.

“The British Academy Early Career Researcher Network also helps us to achieve our aims to strengthen ties with academic leaders and communities across the East of England region, helping further the exciting research taking place in Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences.”

Daniela Dora, ECR assembly representative for the University of Cambridge School of Arts and Humanities, said: “It is exciting to see the British Academy ECR Network launch in the East of England. The network offers not only new opportunities to share ideas and experiences across disciplines but also provides a supportive community for researchers. For early career researchers, this comes at a crucial stage where collaboration and connection matter most.”

The launch event for the East of England cluster of the ECRN will take place on 24 November 2025 in Cambridge, and ECRs from across the region will be invited to take part.

Funded by the Wolfson Foundation, Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT) and Wellcome, the ECRN launched in 2021 as a pilot programme and has since been extended to 2027 due to its success.

Find out more and sign up to the ECRN with the British Academy.

The University has been selected as the lead delivery partner for the British Academy’s new East of England Early Career Researcher Network (ECRN) cluster. Cambridge will work closely with the other delivery partners, Anglia Ruskin University and the University of East Anglia, to support early career researchers in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences across the region.

Early career researchers are the architects of some of the most innovative and dynamic projectsJoanna PageTwo students walking through central Cambridge

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Yes

Research uncovers how a poet-physician turned the innovation in assisted reproduction into a moving story and amplified the women involved.

The experiment, by two education researchers, asked the chatbot to solve a version of the “doubling the square” problem – a lesson described by Plato in about 385 BCE and, the paper suggests, “perhaps the earliest documented experiment in mathematics education”. The puzzle sparked centuries of debate about whether knowledge is latent within us, waiting to be ‘retrieved’, or something that we ‘generate’ through lived experience and encounters.

The new study explored a similar question about ChatGPT’s mathematical ‘knowledge’ – as that can be perceived by its users. The researchers wanted to know whether it would solve Plato’s problem using knowledge it already ‘held’, or by adaptively developing its own solutions.

Plato describes Socrates teaching an uneducated boy how to double the area of a square. At first, the boy mistakenly suggests doubling the length of each side, but Socrates eventually leads him to understand that the new square’s sides should be the same length as the diagonal of the original.

The researchers put this problem to ChatGPT-4, at first imitating Socrates’ questions, and then deliberately introducing errors, queries and new variants of the problem.

Like other Large Language Models (LLMs), ChatGPT is trained on vast collections of text and generates responses by predicting sequences of words learned during its training. The researchers expected it to handle their Ancient Greek maths challenge by regurgitating its pre-existing ‘knowledge’ of Socrates’ famous solution. Instead, however, it seemed to improvise its approach and, at one point, also made a distinctly human-like error.

The study was conducted by Dr Nadav Marco, a visiting scholar at the University of Cambridge, and Andreas Stylianides, Professor of Mathematics Education at Cambridge. Marco is permanently based at the Hebrew University and David Yellin College of Education, Jerusalem.

While they are cautious about the results, stressing that LLMs do not think like humans or ‘work things out’, Marco did characterise ChatGPT’s behaviour as “learner-like”.

“When we face a new problem, our instinct is often to try things out based on our past experience,” Marco said. “In our experiment, ChatGPT seemed to do something similar. Like a learner or scholar, it appeared to come up with its own hypotheses and solutions.”

Because ChatGPT is trained on text and not diagrams, it tends to be weaker at the sort of geometrical reasoning that Socrates used in the doubling the square problem. Despite this, Plato’s text is so well known that the researchers expected the chatbot to recognise their questions and reproduce Socrates’ solution.

Intriguingly, it failed to do so. Asked to double the square, ChatGPT opted for an algebraic approach that would have been unknown in Plato’s time.

It then resisted attempts to get it to make the boy’s mistake and stubbornly stuck to algebra even when the researchers complained about its answer being an approximation. Only when Marco and Stylianides told it they were disappointed that, for all its training, it could not provide an “elegant and exact” answer, did the Chat produce the geometrical alternative.

Despite this, ChatGPT demonstrated full knowledge of Plato’s work when asked about it. “If it had only been recalling from memory, it would almost certainly have referenced the classical solution of building a new square on the original square’s diagonal straight away,” Stylianides said. “Instead, it seemed to take its own approach.”

The researchers also posed a variant of Plato’s problem, asking ChatGPT to double the area of a rectangle while retaining its proportions. Even though it was now aware of their preference for geometry, the Chat stubbornly stuck to algebra. When pressed, it then mistakenly claimed that, because the diagonal of a rectangle cannot be used to double its size, a geometrical solution was unavailable.

The point about the diagonal is true, but a different geometrical solution does exist. Marco suggested that the chance that this false claim came from the chatbot’s knowledge base was “vanishingly small”. Instead, the Chat appeared to be improvising its responses based on their previous discussion about the square.

Finally, Marco and Stylianides asked it to double the size of a triangle. The Chat reverted to algebra yet again – but after more prompting did come up with a correct geometrical answer.

The researchers stress the importance of not over-interpreting these results, since they could not scientifically observe the Chat’s coding. From the perspective of their digital experience as users, however, what emerged at that surface level was a blend of data retrieval and on-the-fly reasoning.

They liken this behaviour to the educational concept of a “zone of proximal development” (ZPD) – the gap between what a learner already knows, and what they might eventually know with support and guidance. Perhaps, they argue, Generative AI has a metaphorical “Chat’s ZPD”: in some cases, it will not be able to solve problems immediately but could do so with prompting.

The authors suggest that working with the Chat in its ZPD can help turn its limitations into opportunities for learning. By prompting, questioning, and testing its responses, students will not only navigate the Chat’s boundaries but also develop the critical skills of proof evaluation and reasoning that lie at the heart of mathematical thinking.

“Unlike proofs found in reputable textbooks, students cannot assume that Chat GPT’s proofs are valid. Understanding and evaluating AI-generated proofs are emerging as key skills that need to be embedded in the mathematics curriculum,” Stylianides said.

“These are core skills we want students to master, but it means using prompts like, ‘I want us to explore this problem together,’ not, ‘Tell me the answer,’” Marco added.

The research is published in the International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology.

The Artificial Intelligence chatbot, ChatGPT, appeared to improvise ideas and make mistakes like a student in a study that rebooted a 2,400-year-old mathematical challenge.

Unlike proofs found in reputable textbooks, students cannot assume that Chat GPT’s proofs are validAndreas StylianidesGreg O’Bairne, CC-BY-SA 3.0 licence, via Wikimedia Commons / NadaDespite ‘knowing’ the famous geometrical solution Socrates (left) gave to double the size of any square (right), ChatGPT preferred its own idiosyncratic approach, researchers found.

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Yes

A groundbreaking new biography of Æthelstan marks 1,100 years since his coronation in 925AD, reasserts his right to be called the first king of England, explains why he isn’t better known and highlights his many overlooked achievements. The book’s author, Professor David Woodman, is campaigning for greater public recognition of Æthelstan’s creation of England in 927AD.

Records unearthed by a Cambridge PhD student expose the kinship and brutality behind one of Britain’s most powerful slave-trading dynasties, as revealed in a new book and digital collection.

A Cambridge professor and counsel team member for Vanuatu gives his initial views on the ICJ Advisory Opinion.

They are among 92 distinguished scholars to be elected to the fellowship in recognition of their work in fields ranging from medieval history to international relations.

The Cambridge academics made Fellows of the Academy this year are:

Professor Jeremy Adelman (Faculty of History; Global History Lab; Darwin College)

Professor Anthony Bale (Faculty of English; Girton College)

Professor Annabel Brett (Faculty of History; Gonville and Caius College)

Professor Hasok Chang (Dept. of History and Philosophy of Science; Clare Hall)

Professor Jennifer Howard-Grenville (Cambridge Judge Business School; Trinity Hall)

Professor Barak Kushner (Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies; Corpus Christi College)

Professor Marta Mirazón Lahr (Dept. of Archaeology, Clare College)

Professor Yael Navaro (Dept. of Social Anthropology; Newnham College)

Professor Joanna Page (Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages and Linguistics; Centre of Latin American Studies; Robinson College)

Professor Clare Pettitt (Faculty of English; Emmanuel College)

Professor Diane Reay (Faculty of Education)

Professor John Robb (Dept. of Archaeology; Peterhouse)

Founded in 1902, the British Academy is the UK’s national academy for the humanities and social sciences. It is a Fellowship consisting of over 1700 of the leading minds in these subjects from the UK and overseas.

Current Fellows include the classicist Professor Dame Mary Beard, the historian Professor Sir Simon Schama and philosopher Professor Baroness Onora O’Neill, while previous Fellows include Dame Frances Yates, Sir Winston Churchill, Seamus Heaney and Beatrice Webb. The Academy is also a funder of both national and international research, as well as a forum for debate and public engagement.

In 2025, a total of 58 UK Fellows, 30 International Fellows and four Honorary Fellows have been elected to the British Academy Fellowship.

Professor Marta Mirazón Lahr said: “I am honoured and delighted to be elected a Fellow of the British Academy. As a native of South America who has been welcomed and encouraged throughout my career in the UK, I feel particularly privileged to join the academy. My work spans anthropology and archaeology and it is pleasing to see inter-disciplinarity recognised. Research in human origins is very dependent upon official and community support across many countries, and I am deeply grateful to the people of Brazil, India, Libya, Melanesia and specially Kenya who have made my work possible (and so enjoyable!), and I look forward to contributing to the Academy’s global mission.”

Professor Joanna Page said: “I am deeply honoured to be elected a Fellow of the British Academy, and I look forward to supporting its mission. It is more important than ever to uphold the value of the humanities and interdisciplinary approaches in forging more just and sustainable futures. Learning from the perspectives and experiences of other regions, including Latin America, is essential to that work. I would particularly like to thank the vibrant community of Latin Americanists at Cambridge – staff and students, past and present – who have made this such a stimulating place to do research.”

Professor Barak Kushner said: “It is an honour to be recognised by the British Academy, though also a bit daunting to be put on par with scholars I have looked up to for years. Recognition of this kind brings more attention to the importance of transnational history when researching East Asia and the need to look beyond national borders.”

Professor Yael Navaro said: “I feel truly honoured to be elected a Fellow of the British Academy. It couldn't be a more important time to mobilise the social sciences and humanities to address some of the most critical issues of our era."

Welcoming the Fellows, Professor Susan J. Smith PBA, new President of the British Academy, said: “One of my first acts as the incoming President of the British Academy is to welcome this year’s newly elected Fellows. What a line-up! With specialisms ranging from the neuroscience of memory to the power of music and the structural causes of poverty, they represent the very best of the humanities and social sciences. They bring years of experience, evidence-based arguments and innovative thinking to the profound challenges of our age: managing the economy, enabling democracy, and securing the quality of human life.

“This year, we have increased the number of new Fellows by nearly ten per cent to cover some spaces between disciplines. Champions of research excellence, every new Fellow enlarges our capacity to interpret the past, understand the present, and shape resilient, sustainable futures. It is a privilege to extend my warmest congratulations to them all.”

Twelve academics from the University of Cambridge have been made Fellows of the prestigious British Academy for the humanities and social science

It couldn't be a more important time to mobilize the social sciences and humanities to address some of the most critical issues of our eraYael NavaroThe British AcademyThe exterior of the British Academy in London

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YesLicence type: Attribution

Engineering Professor Julian Allwood (St Catharine's), Cambridge Zero Director Professor Emily Shuckburgh (Darwin) and Cambridge Energy Policy Research Group Director Emeritus Professor David Newbery (Churchill) join a panel of 17 expert advisors on STAC, which has been created to provide robust, scientific, evidence-based information to support key decisions as the UK overhauls its energy system to reach clean power by 2030.

The Council is expected to also offer independent viewpoints and cutting-edge research on topics from climate science, energy networks and engineering, to the latest technologies and artificial intelligence.

“Evidence-based decision-making is fundamental to the drive for clean power and tackling the climate crisis, with informed policymaking the key to securing a better, fairer world for current and future generations,” UK Energy Secretary Ed Miliband said in the Government’s announcement.

Professor Allwood is Professor of Engineering and the Environment at the University of Cambridge and directs the Use Less Group. Uniquely, his research aims to articulate a pathway to zero emissions based on technologies that already exist at scale. His projects include ground-breaking innovations such as electric cement.

Professor Shuckburgh is Director of Cambridge Zero, the University’s major climate change initiative. A mathematician and data scientist, Emily Shuckburgh is also Professor of Environmental Data Science at the Department of Computer Science and Technology, Academic Director of the Institute of Computing for Climate Science, and co-Director of the Centre for Landscape Regeneration and the UKRI Centre for Doctoral Training on the Application of AI to the study of Environmental Risks (AI4ER). 

As a climate scientist, Professor Shuckburgh worked for more than a decade at the British Antarctic Survey where her work included leading a UK national research programme on the Southern Ocean and its role in climate.

Professor Newbery is the Director of the Cambridge Energy Policy Research Group, an Emeritus Professor of Economics at the Faculty of Economics and a Professorial Research Associate  in the UCL Bartlett School of Environment, Energy and Resources, University College London.

STAC’s expert advice is expected to allow ministers to access the most up-to-date and well-informed scientific evidence, improving decision-making and effectiveness of policy implementation. 

STAC is led by Professor Paul Monks, STAC Co-Chair and Chief Scientific Adviser & Director General, Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ); and Professor David Greenwood FREng, STAC Co-Chair and CEO of Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG) High Value Manufacturing Catapult Centre. 

Read the government announcement here 

Three Cambridge academics have been appointed to the UK Department for Energy Security and Net Zero’s new Science and Technology Advisory Council (STAC), which met for the first time on Wednesday 9 July, 2025. 

Evidence-based decision-making is fundamental to the drive for clean powerUK Energy Secretary David MilibandUK Energy Secretary Ed Miliband at London Climate Action Week/Credit: CISLUK Energy Secretary Ed Miliband at London Climate Action Week

The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

Yes

Researchers from every school and more than 20 departments across the University of Cambridge gathered in February to explore the links between air quality and climate, their impacts on human health, and the challenges and opportunities for Clean Air and Net Zero.